Two conflicting views of the consequences of bureaucracy emerge from the literature. Some studies demonstrate that bureaucracy alienates and frustrates while other research finds bureaucracy increases satisfaction and innovation. This analysis is an attempt to reconcile these two theoretically opposing perspectives by creating and testing a new construct, which we call enabling bureaucracy. The empirical results are encouraging, and suggest that schools can be designed with formalized procedures and hierarchical structures that help rather than hinder. Indeed, teachers report that some rules help rather than constrain and some hierarchies facilitate teaching and learning. In such schools teacher alienation is reduced and trust among colleagues is fostered.

This paper is a theoretical and empirical analysis of the construct of collective teacher efficacy. First a model of collective efficacy was elaborated for use in schools. Then an operational measure of collective teacher efficacy was developed, tested, and found to have strong reliability and reasonable validity. Finally, using the instrument to examine urban elementary schools in one large midwestern district, collective teacher efficacy was positively associated with differences between schools in student-level achievement in both reading and mathematics.

This preliminary paper is a theoretical analysis of the types of change and their likely consequences for change efforts in schools. First, organizational structures are conceptualized as enabling and coercive, and then conflict issues are viewed in terms of cognitive and affective problems. Finally a typology of the organizational impact on cognitive and affective conflict is developed, which includes the likely affect of change efforts.

Empowerment is defined and measured in terms of teachers’ power to control critical decisions about teaching and learning decisions. The research considers, first, the relationship between school climate and teacher empowerment, and then, the relationship between teacher empowerment and school effectiveness, which includes measures of mathematics and reading achievement in 86 middle schools. The results support the pivotal importance of teacher empowerment in the effectiveness of schools. Finally, a theoretical model is proposed to explain the linkages between organizational characteristics and student achievement.

This paper reviews the literature on trust to develop a theoretical model guiding the measurement of trust. Then, multilevel modeling is use to offer new knowledge about the distribution of trust across and with schools. Trust matters to student achievement in explaining the differences among schools; it helps explain student achievement in urban elementary schools.

    Nancy Nestor-Baker & Wayne K. Hoy

This study of the tacit knowledge of school superintendents builds upon the theoretical and empirical work done in other professions. After the theoretical nature of tacit knowledge and practical intelligence is analyzed, the domain of tacit knowledge for a sample of 44 Ohio superintendents is mapped. Four hundred sixty-nine examples of tacit knowledge where identified, which clustered into 21 distinct categories of behavior using hierarchical agglomerative clustering. Quantitative and qualitative analyses of tacit knowledge data suggested that successful superintendents have both a greater quantity and different content of tacit knowledge than typical superintendents.

Spinning the truth is deception caused by adding, subtracting, and partially displaying information while communicating with others. A theoretical framework of six elements of truth spinning was developed from the literature and tested empirically. Two dimensions of truth spinning in schools emerged—principal spin and teacher spin. Reliable and valid scales for each were developed, and truth spinning was related to the theoretically relevant constructs of role conflict, powerlessness, and trust.

This multidisciplinary review draws on both theoretical and empirical literature on trust spanning the past four decades from philosophy, psychology, sociology, economics, organizational science, and education, and brings that literature to bear on relationships of trust in schools. Studies utilizing a wide variety of methodologies helped clarify the meaning of trust in an organizational setting. First, we examine the importance of trust. Then, we explore the nature and meaning of trust--the facets, bases, and degrees of trust. Next we examine the dynamics of trust--initiating, sustaining, breaking and repairing trust. Finally, we synthesize the research on trust as it relates to organizational processes such as communication, collaboration, climate, organizational citizenship, efficacy and effectiveness.

This is a tribute to the late Dr. Donald J. Willower, which was presented at the American Educational Research Association Meeting in April, 2000. The paper describes Willower’s scholarship and service for the past four decades.